heres a little bit or reading for you not great startoff material but thought you may like it.
When I find time tomorroe Ill PM you some good books
MUSHROOM IDENTIFICATION: TAXONOMIC CONFUSION AND
THE POTENTIAL FOR DEADLY MISTAKES
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]On December 16, 1981, three teenagers [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]hunting for psychoactive mushrooms on[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Whidbey Island, WA (USA) collected [/FONT][FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]specimens of a Galerina species, in the mistaken[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]belief that the mushrooms belonged to a [/FONT][FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Psilocybe species. All three of them fell ill after[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]eating the mushrooms, but did not report their [/FONT][FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]symptoms or seek medical help for another two[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]days, afraid of being prosecuted for using [/FONT][FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]psilocybin. After medical treatment, two of the[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]teenagers made a full recovery. The third [/FONT][FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]victim, however, a 16 -year-old girl, died on[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]December 24, 1981.[/FONT]
As presented by Beug and Bigwood, this tragic incident underscores the dangers inherent
is careless or erroneous identification of mushroom species, especially when a situation is
complicated by overzealous legislative and punitive measures. The psilocybin-producing
species as well as culinary mushroom varieties often share some characteristics with many other
species. Casual mushroom hunters and laypersons are especially prone to making
identification errors, suffering accidental ittoxications as a result. Previous chapters
included several case histories of such involuntary intoxications. To be sure, modern
mycological keys are valuable tools when it comes to accuracy in deciding the family and
genus of an unknown mushroom sample. It can be extremely difficult, however, to identify the
specific species of questionable specimens, especially if the sample belongs to the vast
category of "LBM"s, or "little brown mushrooms".
We currently know very little about the "LBM" species, since their habitats and
variations in habitus have not been studied in systematic detail. Not surprisingly, reference
books are often limited by incomplete descriptions that lack the essential criteria for
differentiating one species from others that are similar or related. I vividly recall my own first
attempts to identify unknown samples by relying on what appeared to be precise definitions in
standard mycological reference works. I found many of the listed traits to be descriptive of a
wide range of sometimes very different species. As I compared my samples with the text, I
noticed a tendency to disregard some of the finer details in the literature, so that "my mushrooms"
would better match the descriptions. Naturally, this approach resulted in errors. Luckily, I would quickly discover and correct my mistakes upon consultation with my mycologist friends. In my experience, competence and expertise in the area of mushroom identification are skills honed over time through extensive fieldwork, consultations with established mycological experts, and careful analyses of samples based on information found in appropriate reference books.
The literature clearly indicates that
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Psilocybe semilanceata is [/FONT]one species that, at prime locations, can be easily identified without consulting a diagnostic key. [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Psilocybe semilanceata is [/FONT]known for its uniquely distinctive appearance, so that microscopic tests are not needed to distinguish this species from other pasture-dwelling mushrooms. The situation is different, however, for [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Psilocybe [/FONT]species that thrive on wood debris, as illustrated by the tragic story at the beginning of this chapter.Besides, compared to Europe, the North American mycoflora includes a much broader and varied
spectrum of mushroom species to begin with.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Warning: Amatoxins are Lethal![/FONT]
The [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Galerina [/FONT]genus includes a number of poisonous mushrooms. These species are dangerous,
because they contain the same deadly amatoxins as the "death cap" [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic](Amanita phalloides) [/FONT]and its
relatives, "death angel" and "destroying angel". Their toxins are insidious, with no symptoms evident for about 12 hours. During this latency period, the toxins can cause major irreversible internal damage, which is why many cases are fatal in spite of treatment. A common North American species is [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Galerina [/FONT][FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]autumnalis (Peck) Singer & Smith, [/FONT]which grows on wood debris in parks and forests, just like several of the [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Psilocybe [/FONT]species. At first glance, [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Galerina [/FONT][FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]autumnalis [/FONT]resembles [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Psilocybe stuntzii Guzman & [/FONT][FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Ott, [/FONT]and the two species may grow side by side at the same location. The
[/FONT][FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Galerina [/FONT]species, however, does not turn blue. I once discovered a grassy area that was home to a cluster
of [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Psilocybe stuntzii [/FONT]specimens entangled with a [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Galerina [/FONT]species. The mushrooms had grown so entwined that individual fruiting bodies could be identified only by spore analyses.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Pholiotina filaris (Fr.) Sing. [/FONT](also known as [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Conocybe) [/FONT]is another North American species
known to contain amatoxins. At the same time, these toxins have not been found in European
samples of this species. Thus, [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Pholiotina filaris [/FONT][FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic](Fr.) Sing. [/FONT]most likely does not refer to the same
species on both continents. Still, at least one European [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Galerina [/FONT]species [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic](Galerina marginata[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic](Fr.) Kuhn.) [/FONT]contains the same toxins found in the "death cap" mushroom. This species also grows on
decaying wood substrate and its fruiting bodies contain about one-third of the amount of amanitines found in [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Amanita phalloides. [/FONT]Incredibly, older mushroom books list [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Galerina [/FONT][FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]marginata [/FONT]as an edible species.
In a previous chapter on the [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Panaeolus [/FONT]species I illustrated the potential for identification
errors associated with commercial cultivation areas that are "invaded" by outside species. Due to their rapid growth, the [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Panaeolus [/FONT]species in particular will often fruit in artificial growing areas long
before the cultivated species that is grown there.
Chapter 3.3 details the 1970 poisoning incident involving [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Panaeolus subbalteatus [/FONT]from a cultivation area in Leipzig. In that case, the intruding species was mistaken for [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Stropharia [/FONT][FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]rugoso-annulata Farlow [/FONT](the Giant [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Stropharia), [/FONT]based on information from a mushroom book.
Apparently nobody realized the glaring differences between the book's description and the actual
characteristics, except for the assumption that the sample's small size meant the mushrooms simply
had not grown as tall as portrayed in the book. This flawed conclusion illustrates a type of
judgment error common among amateur mushroom hunters who falsely believe that they
are experts. Having been shown a single sample of wild mushrooms, for example, some mycophiles
become convinced they will always be able to recognize the species in the future. That is how one
such mushroom hunter accidently ingested [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Inocybe [/FONT][FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]aeruginascens [/FONT]specimens that he believed to be
common fairy ring mushrooms. In a similar case of [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Inocybe aeruginascens [/FONT]intoxication, the mushrooms had been picked as white champignons, even though this common culinary
mushroom bears no resemblance, either in size or form, to [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Inocybe [/FONT][FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]aeruginascens. [/FONT]Overall, however, these unfortunate cases have also contributed to our understanding of mushroom biochemistry.
In this context, I want to emphasize once more that the hallucinogenic varieties
among the [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Inocybes [/FONT]can easily be mistaken for those muscarine-producing [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Inocybe [/FONT]species
that are extremely poisonous.
As part of his investigation of the [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Psilocybe [/FONT]genus, Guzman noted a common trait among the hallucinogenic species, in addition to the bluing reaction: a flour-like smell or taste. Apart from the inherent subjective nature of our sense of smell and taste, a common odor is a trait that definitely
does not apply to the European species (also see Chapter 3.2).
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Mycophile or Mycophobe?[/FONT]
There are reports from the Western
United States about people with expert
knowledge of [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Psilocybe semilanceata -[/FONT]
devoted mushroom hunters who can identify
the species with drill and accuracy. At the
same time, however, these experts cannot
identify easily spotted common table
mushrooms, nor are they able to differentiate
the [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Agaricus [/FONT]species (champignons) from other
mushrooms, even when these species grow on
the same pasture. Such individuals, then, are
not interested in species other than [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Psilocybe[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]semilanceata. [/FONT]In my opinion, this attitude
reflects a rare combination of mycophilia and
mycophobia.
A mushroom's spore dust provides
important information needed to determine
identity. A spore print is left by the gills when
the cap is placed on black or white paper
(depending on spore color). As the process
takes several hours, a glass vessel must be
placed over the cap to prevent drying. While
useful, information obtained from spore
analyses has its limitations, For instance,
spores derived from mushrooms belonging to
different genera may have the same color, but
reveal basic differences under the microscope.
There is also a high degree of similarity among
spores from different Psilocybe species. Thus,
the only way to prevent grave errors and
potentially deadly intoxications is to rely on
experienced experts for mushroom
identification, a process that must include
analysis of available ecological data.
